Thought Leadership - NYAS

This year the U.S. is experiencing one of the most intense flu seasons in at least 15 years. Public health expert Syra Madad, DH Sc. offers advice on how to protect yourself.

Published February 11, 2025

By Syra Madad, D.H.Sc., M.Sc., MCP, CHEP

Image courtesy of Puwasit Inyavileart via stock.adobe.com.

Influenza, or the flu, is a persistent and evolving viral threat that affects millions of Americans annually. This year, the U.S. is experiencing one of the most intense flu seasons in at least 15 years, with flu-related doctor’s visits exceeding the peaks of previous years. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), at least 24 million people have been infected so far this season, leading to 310,000 hospitalizations and 13,000 deaths, including 57 pediatric fatalities.

Several states have reported school closures due to high absenteeism among students and staff. While the flu remains most widespread in the South, Southwest, and Western states, significant activity has been reported across 43 states. In New York City, flu activity has reached its peak for this wave, meaning a substantial number of people in the community are experiencing influenza and flu-like symptoms. It will take several weeks for activity to decline locally. On a national level, seasonal flu activity remains elevated and continues to rise in some regions. However, it’s not too late to get vaccinated. With flu transmission still high, getting vaccinated can provide meaningful protection for both individuals and communities.

How the Flu Spreads and What to Expect

Influenza is highly contagious and spreads easily through close contact with an infected person. The virus is primarily transmitted through droplets released when a sick person coughs, sneezes, or talks. Infection occurs when these droplets, or contaminated saliva or mucus, enter the eyes, nose, or mouth. It can also spread by touching virus-contaminated surfaces and then touching the face. Given its rapid transmission, understanding flu symptoms, prevention strategies, and available treatments are key to minimizing its impact. Here’s what you need to know:

Key Information

Incubation Period	1–4 days after exposure before symptoms appear.
Contagious Period	1 day before symptoms to up to 7 days after onset; longer in children and immunocompromised individuals. Most contagious in the first 3 days
Signs & Symptoms	Fever, chills, cough, sore throat, body aches, fatigue, headache, congestion; vomiting/diarrhea more common in children.
Isolation Period	Stay home until symptoms improve and fever-free for 24 hours without medication.
Prevention	Annual flu vaccine, handwashing, avoiding sick individuals, mask-wearing in crowds, improving ventilation, and disinfecting surfaces.
Treatment	Rest, hydration, antivirals (e.g., oseltamivir) for high-risk or severe cases, most effective within 48 hours of symptoms.
Flu Vaccine Eligibility	Everyone aged six months and older
High-Risk Groups	Young children, older adults, pregnant individuals, and those with chronic conditions or weakened immunity.
Where to Get Vaccinated (NYC)	NYC Vaccine Finder, pharmacies, doctor’s offices, clinics, employer programs. Find a flu vaccine at vaccinefinder.nyc.gov
Where to Get Vaccinated (Outside NYC)	Pharmacies (CVS, Walgreens, Rite Aid), primary care offices, urgent care centers, health departments. Find a flu vaccine at vaccines.gov
Who Should Get Vaccinated	Everyone 6 months+, especially high-risk groups; high-dose options available for older adults.
When to Seek Medical Attention for Emergency Symptoms	Breathing issues, chest pain, dehydration, confusion, worsening symptoms, or fever >3 days or stays above 104°F. In children, rapid breathing, flaring nostrils, difficulty drinking fluids, dehydration, any fever in infants under 3 months, unusual fussiness or poor feeding

Why the Flu Vaccine Matters

Reference: https://www.nyc.gov/assets/doh/downloads/pdf/hcp/weekly-surveillance02012025.pdf. Annotation by Dr. Syra Madad.

Vaccination is the best defense against severe illness, hospitalization, and complications from influenza, particularly for those with chronic health conditions. In recent flu seasons, 9 out of 10 people hospitalized with flu had at least one underlying condition, highlighting the importance of annual vaccination for high-risk individuals.

While flu vaccine effectiveness varies each year, research shows that during seasons when vaccine strains closely match circulating viruses, vaccination reduces the risk of flu illness by 40–60% and related hospitalization by 60%. Even in years with a suboptimal match, vaccination helps reduce symptom severity, prevents associated complications like pneumonia, and lowers the risk of worsening chronic conditions.

Flu vaccines have also been shown to significantly reduce the severity of illness. A 2018 study found that from 2012 to 2015, flu vaccination among adults reduced the risk of being admitted to an intensive care unit (ICU) with flu by 82%. Similarly, a 2014 study showed that flu vaccination reduced children’s risk of flu-related pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) admission by 74% during the 2010–2012 flu seasons.

Flu vaccines protect against three different influenza viruses (two influenza A strains and one influenza B strain), and since multiple influenza viruses often circulate in a single season, vaccination remains essential. Ongoing studies continue to show that even when vaccinated individuals contract the flu, their illness tends to be less severe.

The Bottom Line: Protect Yourself and Others

Influenza poses a serious risk, especially to vulnerable populations. With over 13,000 flu-related deaths recorded this season and numbers expected to rise, taking preventive measures is critical. If you haven’t gotten your flu shot yet, it’s not too late, flu activity remains high, and vaccination can still provide protection.

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2024: A Year of Progress and Persistence

A woman in a blue dress poses for the camera.

Public health expert Dr. Syra Madad reflects on resilience, innovation, and collaboration she saw in 2024, though gaps remain in equity, healthcare worker safety, and public trust in science.

Published January 7, 2025

By Syra Madad, D.H.Sc., M.Sc., MCP, CHEP

Image courtesy of cherdchai via stock.adobe.com.

As we step into 2025, I reflect on the remarkable progress and challenges of 2024 in the field of special pathogens and public health. From the rapid containment of the Marburg virus in Rwanda to groundbreaking strides in global health in disease elimination, the year was a testament to resilience, innovation, and collaboration. These achievements emerged against a backdrop of formidable challenges, including zoonotic threats like H5N1, the ongoing Mpox Clade 1 outbreak, and the persistent decline in vaccination rates in the United States. Yet, the collective response—driven by scientific advances, decisive leadership, and community engagement—offers a roadmap for tackling future health crises with resolve and ingenuity.

While these milestones provide reasons for optimism, they also underscore the gaps that remain in equity, healthcare worker safety, and public trust in science. The lessons of 2024 reaffirm the critical need for vigilance, preparation, and global solidarity. Here are five key achievements that exemplify the progress we’ve made and the challenges we must continue to address.

1. Marburg Outbreak Response: A Triumph of Speed and Coordination

The 2024 Marburg virus outbreak in Rwanda stands as a benchmark for swift and effective epidemic response. Historically linked with fatality rates as high as 88%, this outbreak achieved an unprecedented case fatality rate of 22.7% thanks to Rwanda’s rapid and coordinated efforts. Within nine days of the outbreak’s declaration, the country launched a vaccine trial, administering over 1,600 doses of the investigational Sabin chAD3 MARV vaccine to healthcare workers—who accounted for nearly 80% of confirmed cases—and other at-risk groups.

The early deployment of experimental therapeutics, such as Remdesivir and monoclonal antibodies, combined with advanced supportive care, saved lives and reduced the outbreak’s severity. Rwanda’s decisive actions underscore the importance of rapid intervention, effective surveillance, and the availability of experimental countermeasures, offering a critical template for managing future high-consequence infectious diseases.

Despite its success, the outbreak highlighted critical challenges, particularly the vulnerability of healthcare workers. In the realm of special pathogens and high-consequence infectious diseases—a field in which I work closely—healthcare worker infections are considered a “never event”—an occurrence that should never happen. As a professional dedicated to preparedness and response in this critical area, I understand firsthand that allowing frontline responders to contract infections while caring for patients signals systemic failures in multiple areas, including infection prevention protocols, administrative controls to ensure safe working environments, and clear, consistent healthcare worker guidance to mitigate exposure risks.

In Rwanda, nosocomial transmission during the Marburg outbreak, compounded by delays in diagnosis, led to unacceptably high infection rates among healthcare workers. This underscores the urgent need for robust infection prevention and control (IPC) measures, surveillance and screening systems, comprehensive training programs, and accessible mental health support to protect frontline healthcare workers. In a co-authored article, “Protecting Healthcare Workers: A Vital Imperative in Rwanda’s Marburg Virus Outbreak and Beyond,” we outlined actionable strategies to strengthen protections for frontline responders during outbreaks. Safeguarding healthcare workers is not just a moral imperative but a foundational requirement for effective epidemic response and resilience in future crises.

2. Significant Milestones in Global Health

The year 2024 witnessed remarkable successes in global health, underscoring the power of collaboration. Among the most notable achievements were strides in disease elimination, with countries like Egypt and Cabo Verde being declared malaria-free after decades of effort. Seven nations, including Brazil, Pakistan, and Chad, eliminated neglected tropical diseases, while Guinea achieved maternal and neonatal tetanus elimination. In the Americas, measles-free status was reverified, and several countries made strides in halting mother-to-child transmission of HIV and syphilis. These accomplishments are a testament to sustained partnerships, robust public health systems, and the collective dedication to improving quality of life worldwide.

Progress was also made in tackling noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) and mental health, with a renewed emphasis on prevention and control. WHO’s 2024 reports highlighted significant declines in tobacco use and a 38% global reduction in drowning deaths since 2000. However, the growing burden of conditions like obesity, diabetes, and neurological diseases underscored the need for innovative strategies and equity in healthcare access. On the global stage, leaders addressed critical health priorities, including antimicrobial resistance and the intersection of climate change and health, while advancing negotiations on pandemic preparedness agreements. These milestones highlight a year of transformative progress in global health!

3. Addressing the Growing Threat of H5N1

The H5N1 avian flu outbreak in the United States has been a sobering reminder of the pandemic potential lurking within zoonotic diseases. While the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) maintains that the current risk to humans remains low, the year 2024 saw 66 confirmed human infections—most linked to infected cows or poultry, with two cases of unknown exposure sources.

Each infection represents a gamble, offering the virus an opportunity to mutate in ways that could enhance its ability to spread efficiently between humans, potentially triggering a larger epidemic. The outbreak also recorded its first fatal human case in Louisiana, where the patient, exposed to a sick backyard flock, developed a severe infection with concerning mutations. These mutations could enhance the virus’s ability to bind to human upper airway receptors, a development that underscores the need for vigilance.

Thankfully, efforts to mitigate a larger epidemic are well underway. States like California have declared emergencies to expedite their responses, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has launched the National Milk Testing Strategy (NMTS), which builds on measures taken since H5N1 was detected in dairy cattle in March 2024. Additionally, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) has allocated $306 million to bolster monitoring and preparedness efforts against H5N1.

Earlier this year, I co-authored an article outlining the critical role hospitals play in preparing for H5N1 and led one of the nation’s first full-scale healthcare system exercises on H5N1 preparedness. As an infectious disease epidemiologist and a leader in healthcare biopreparedness, I understand the urgency of these proactive measures to prevent and prepare for potentially calamitous outcomes, and it is encouraging to see such decisive steps being taken.

4. A Landmark Step in Environmental Health: Regulating PFAS in Drinking Water

The Biden-Harris Administration’s first-ever national drinking water standard for PFAS, or “forever chemicals,” marks a transformative moment in public health and environmental stewardship. Announced in April 2024, the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) legally enforceable rule sets strict limits on toxic PFAS in drinking water, including PFOA and PFOS, at 4 parts per trillion—the lowest level reliably measurable.

This regulation, part of the EPA’s PFAS Strategic Roadmap, is expected to reduce exposure for 100 million people, prevent thousands of deaths, and significantly lower rates of serious illnesses, such as certain cancers as well as liver and heart conditions. Complementing this rule, the Biden Administration allocated $1 billion through the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law to help communities implement PFAS testing and treatment, part of a historic $9 billion investment to combat PFAS pollution.

The regulation addresses a critical public health challenge, as PFAS contamination has long plagued communities across the United States. These chemicals, commonly found in everyday products like nonstick cookware, firefighting foam, and waterproof clothing, persist in the environment and accumulate over time, leading to adverse health risks. My previous collaboration with a chemist colleague highlighted PFAS exposure pathways, including general exposure (via drinking water, food, and household products), occupational exposure, and prenatal exposure, where contaminated umbilical cord blood crosses the placenta.

The EPA’s decisive action not only sets a new standard for water safety but also exemplifies the importance of a whole-of-government approach to environmental justice. While water utilities face challenges in implementing these measures, this landmark regulation underscores the value of prioritizing health, equity, and the environment to protect current and future generations from the harms of PFAS.

5. Combating Vaccine Mis and Disinformation: The “Let’s Get Real” Campaign

The launch of the HHS’s Let’s Get Real campaign marked a critical step in countering vaccine misinformation and disinformation, a growing threat as vaccination rates in the U.S. continue to decline. In the 2023–2024 school year, national vaccination coverage for key vaccines, such as measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR), fell below 93%, a concerning drop from the pre-pandemic rate of 95%. Additionally, 3.3% of U.S. kindergartners had exemptions from at least one vaccine, the highest rate ever recorded, with 14 states exceeding a 5% exemption rate. These alarming trends jeopardize herd immunity and heighten the risk of outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases.

HHS’s Let’s Get Real campaign arrives at a time when public rhetoric around vaccines remains polarized, shaped by misinformation and shifting attitudes toward routine immunizations. This shift also stems from hesitancy about COVID-19 vaccination or objections to vaccine mandates, fueling potential declines in coverage and rising exemptions. A 2024 survey revealed that 8.3% of U.S. parents disagreed with the necessity of school vaccination requirements, while 15.2% expressed no opinion, reflecting a troubling erosion of confidence in vaccines.

Campaigns like Let’s Get Real are critical to reversing these trends and rebuilding public trust in immunization. This mission aligns with my platform, Critical Health Voices, which seeks to amplify perspectives from frontline healthcare and public health experts to combat mis and disinformation and foster informed decision-making. Addressing falling vaccination rates demands a multi-faceted approach, including robust public health campaigns, strict enforcement of school vaccination requirements, and enhanced access to immunization services to ensure preventable diseases do not resurge.

The Road Ahead

While these accomplishments give us cause for celebration, they also highlight the persistent inequities and vulnerabilities that demand our attention. The lessons of 2024 reinforce the importance of preparation, innovation, and collaboration. They also remind us of the power of hope—hope that arises when science, policy, and humanity converge to protect and promote health.

As we look to 2025, I remain optimistic about the path forward. The successes of this year remind us that progress, while often hard-won, is achievable when we work together with purpose and determination.

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Isolationism Will Make Science Less Effective

Increasing global scientific cooperation is fundamental to the mission of the International Science Reserve. Effective collaboration will positively impact how we solve global challenges.

Published December 23, 2024

By Mila Rosenthal, PhD

The COVID-19 pandemic was a global human disaster. But the damage done could have been even worse had the spread of the virus not been countered by vaccines, diagnostics, and therapeutics, all developed by the medical and bioscience community at breakneck speed. In that success story, the people involved in the response tend to highlight one vital but often publicly overlooked ingredient: global scientific cooperation.

Could we achieve that level of international collaboration again? There are plenty of reasons to worry that we couldn’t.

First, over the past few years, we have witnessed intensifying economic and political competition between the United States and an increasingly assertive China. This rivalry is being played not just in tariffs, but in increased security restrictions on commercial technology exchanges and scientific collaboration.

An article by Keisuke Okamura last year in Quantitative Science Studies, the official journal of the international association of researchers who study the metrics of science, analyzed the impact of these tensions on scientific collaboration. Using data from published papers, Okamura found that the United States and China, after rapidly moving closer together for decades, had been moving apart since 2019.

Adding to this seismic shift in global relationships will be the potential impact of the new administration and its “America First” protectionist approach to supply chains, international climate standards, and public health cooperation. This potentially threatens our collective ability to respond to new and unexpected crises, as well as those we know too well. A recent Rand Corporation assessment of Global Catastrophic Risk found higher risk levels for hazards from sudden and severe changes to Earth’s climate, nuclear war, artificial intelligence, and pandemics from natural occurrence or synthetic biology.

International Scientific Collaboration Trending Up

Whether it is climate change, the need to build ethical standards for AI, geoengineering, or gene editing— all are science-based challenges that can only be addressed by global level collaboration. Encouragingly, the Okamura paper shows that the overwhelming trend towards international scientific cooperation over the past 50 years has been positive, with scientists from many institutions and countries in multiple scientific disciplines routinely working together.

It is crucial to the future of science that we develop new ways of being proactive, operating cohesively to promote solutions, safety, and stability across borders even as official relationships between states become more difficult. At the International Science Reserve (ISR) at The New York Academy of Sciences (the Academy), we have been promoting pathways for scientific cooperation, building a community that I believe can help function as a communal safeguard in the face of the threat posed by the scientific isolationist model.

Tens of thousands of scientists from more than 100 countries have signed up to the ISR network to be ready to work together in response to future cross-border crises. We help train and prepare scientists and experts on how to handle disasters, crises, and instability—and how to identify and get access to additional resources when needed.

Doomsday Scenarios

Since it is our job to think about doomsday scenarios, let’s talk through one.

Another pandemic hits. Politics— whether institutional or governmental have blocked researchers and medical professionals from different countries from talking, collaborating, and sharing data. Such lack of collaboration results in it becoming harder for us to understand why some regions of the world are being hit harder than others, because we lack the data to understand why. Meanwhile, scientists in other regions have the answer, but they are not sharing it. Lives are lost, economies wrecked, and we are all less safe. This is obviously a scary scenario.

The ISR was developed with the express goal of circumventing the barriers to collaboration. We help researchers talk to each other to build trust and share ideas through our digital hub. We develop games and scenarios to help them better prepare for decision-making in their own contexts when crises hit.

Customized Digital Games

This year, for example, we partnered with the Center for Advanced Preparedness and Threat Response Simulation (CAPTRS) to build customized digital games to test how policymakers make decisions based on evolving scientific information during a crisis. We run scenarios on different kinds of crises—from extreme heat, mega wildfires, and floods to crop failures and new pathogen outbreaks—and we have explored and increased access to the data modelling and analysis tools that researchers need to respond to those. We also celebrate the work of ISR network members and uplift the stories of those who understand firsthand science’s role in global crisis response and help the public to better understand why this matters.

In our hypothetical scenario, the ISR is one of the spaces where scientists are communicating, generating support for each other, and sharing insights. They then can take that research and information back to their local contexts to strengthen their response. Of course, this scenario is hypothetical and high-level and perhaps idealistic. But at this moment, we need a clear vision to work together across borders to reduce harm and save lives.

We can’t predict what will happen next. Science can’t tell us what the day-to-day decisions of world leaders will be. But what we do know is global problems can only be effectively solved through sustained scientific collaboration. To achieve that we need to turn outward, not just inward.

Do you want to be part of this impactful network of scientists? Join the ISR today

Unraveling the Mystery in the DRC’s Disease Outbreak

A recent outbreak of an undiagnosed illness in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is on the radar of public health professionals. Preparedness is key to mitigating the issue.

Published December 10, 2024

By Syra Madad, D.H.Sc., M.Sc., MCP, CHEP

Testing for malnourishment in Democratic Republic of the Congo. Image courtesy of DFID – UK Department for International Development, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

A recent outbreak of an undiagnosed illness in the Panzi health zone of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has captured global attention, spotlighting the challenges of outbreak investigations in resource-limited settings. Since late October, over 400 cases have been reported, predominantly among children under five years old. Symptoms such as fever, cough, and body aches have resulted in 31 deaths, with severe malnutrition compounding the crisis.

This outbreak highlights the critical need for strong global public health systems to detect and respond to emerging health threats. Although the cause remains uncertain, investigators are exploring various possibilities, including endemic diseases like malaria and respiratory infections such as acute pneumonia, influenza, COVID-19, and measles. Malnutrition is thought to play a significant role in worsening disease severity. Laboratory testing is ongoing, and health officials are evaluating whether multiple diseases may be contributing to the cases and fatalities reported.

Is This “Disease X”?

The term “Disease X” refers to a hypothetical, unknown pathogen with the potential to cause a global epidemic or pandemic. Coined by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2018, Disease X represents the growing need to prepare for unforeseen infectious threats. In the 21st century, humanity has faced several emerging and re-emerging viral diseases, including SARS-CoV-1, MERS, and Zika, as well as the most recent Disease X, SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19. These outbreaks underscore the importance of readiness, as novel pathogens like mpox have also spread beyond their endemic regions, creating widespread public health challenges.

While mysterious outbreaks like the one in the DRC often raise alarms, they are more frequently caused by endemic diseases in under-resourced areas than by new pathogens. Known diseases such as measles or influenza, exacerbated by malnutrition or poor vaccination coverage, are often the culprits. My husband often reminds me of the medical adage, “When you hear hoofbeats, think horses, not zebras,” which emphasizes prioritizing the most likely diagnosis. Yet, as someone who works in high-consequence infectious diseases, my mind often first goes to those zebras.

How Outbreak Investigations Work

Outbreak investigations follow a systematic approach to identify and control the source of illness:

1. Epidemiological Analysis: Investigators collect and analyze data to identify trends, clusters, and possible modes of transmission.

2. Clinical and Laboratory Testing: Samples from patients are tested to rule out suspected pathogens such as malaria, pneumonia, or influenza. In this case, samples have been sent to laboratories in Kinshasa for further testing.

3. Community Engagement: Teams work with local communities to identify additional cases, strengthen infection prevention, and provide treatment for the sick.

In the DRC, the investigation faces significant challenges, including remote locations, poor infrastructure, and a healthcare system strained by supply shortages. Despite these obstacles, international and national health teams are collaborating to identify the cause and strengthen the local response according to the latest WHO situation report.

Preparing for Future Threats

The DRC outbreak underscores the importance of global preparedness for both known and unknown diseases. Research shows that the risk of a pandemic with similar impact to COVID-19 is about 1 in 50 in any given year, with a lifetime probability of around 38%. This risk is amplified by environmental changes, which increase the likelihood of pathogens jumping from animals to humans.

To prepare for the next Disease X, scientists are studying the roughly 25 viral families most likely to harbor a novel pandemic threat. Efforts like CEPI’s 100 Days Mission aim to develop vaccines within three months of identifying a new pathogen, offering a proactive defense against future pandemics.

Lessons for the Present and Future

While it is unknown that the current outbreak in the DRC represents a new Disease X, it serves as a reminder of the need to strengthen health systems worldwide. Early investments in surveillance, laboratory capacity, and community engagement are critical to identifying and controlling outbreaks before they spread.

The ongoing investigation in the DRC is a testament to the dedication of public health professionals working in some of the world’s most challenging conditions. It also highlights the importance of global solidarity in addressing outbreaks, whether they stem from endemic diseases or novel pathogens.

Preparedness is our best defense against the unknown. By investing in science, supporting resource-limited health systems, and fostering international collaboration, we can mitigate the impact of today’s outbreaks and prevent the pandemics of tomorrow.

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A Vital Imperative in Rwanda’s Marburg Virus Outbreak

Healthcare workers in Rwanda are disproportionately affected by the ongoing outbreak of Marburg virus disease, which is highly virulent despite its relatively low case fatality rate. How can these medical professionals best protect themselves?

Published October 30, 2024

By Syra Madad, D.H.Sc., M.Sc., MCP, CHEP and Nahid Bhadelia, MD, MALD

A shot of downtown Kigali, the capital city of Rwanda.
Image courtesy of F.C.G. – stock.adobe.com.

As Rwanda faces its first outbreak of Marburg virus disease (MVD), it stands at a pivotal moment. The country has confirmed 65 cases of Marburg as of October 28, 2024, with 47 recoveries and 15 deaths, a relatively low case fatality rate (CFR) of 23%. This is a testament to the strength of Rwanda’s healthcare system, which has earned a reputation as one of the most resilient and high-quality systems in Africa. Although this may be Rwanda’s first MVD outbreak, the country is not a stranger to the threat posed by viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs). It has had to maintain vigilance during recent Ebola Virus Disease outbreaks in neighboring Democratic Republic of Congo.

Yet, despite these strengths, the current outbreak has highlighted an urgent vulnerability: the safety of healthcare workers. Over 80% of confirmed cases are among healthcare workers, a statistic that underscores the pressing need to enhance protections for those on the front lines of this and future outbreaks.

Rwanda’s Health System: A Success Story Under Strain

Rwanda’s healthcare system has made impressive strides since the country’s recovery from the 1994 genocide. Over the past three decades, Rwanda has transformed its health infrastructure to become a leader in healthcare delivery among low-income countries in sub-Saharan Africa. One of the cornerstones of Rwanda’s success is its Mutuelles de Santé, a community-based health insurance scheme that covers over 90% of the population, making healthcare more accessible and affordable for the vast majority of citizens. Through sustained investments in rural healthcare posts and the decentralization of services, Rwanda has significantly improved healthcare accessibility, particularly for those in remote areas.

These advances have contributed to Rwanda’s remarkable achievements in public health. It is one of the few low-income countries to have met the United Nations Millennium Development Goals related to maternal and child health. Rwanda has also seen significant reductions in the burden of diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the country’s proactive response and efficient vaccine rollout enabled it to vaccinate over 82% of its population, setting a benchmark in the region and surpassing many of its peers in sub-Saharan Africa.

However, the Marburg outbreak has brought a new set of challenges. The virus, which is transmitted through direct contact with the bodily fluids of infected individuals and can also spread through contaminated surfaces and materials, is highly virulent and shares many similarities with Ebola. Despite Rwanda’s impressive healthcare achievements, the high rate of nosocomial transmission, where infections spread within healthcare facilities, reveals gaps that must be addressed to protect healthcare workers.

Nosocomial Transmission: A Threat to Frontline Workers

The current Marburg outbreak in Rwanda highlights the risks healthcare workers face in outbreaks of VHFs like MVD, particularly when it is not at forefront of clinical suspicion. Nosocomial transmission, or the spread of the virus within healthcare settings, is not uncommon during VHF outbreaks, but it is particularly dangerous for healthcare workers. In Rwanda, the virus has spread primarily in two hospitals, resulting in a disproportionately high number of infections among healthcare professionals.

This is not unique to Rwanda. Across the continent, healthcare workers have been at the epicenter of VHF outbreaks, often working under extreme pressure, sometimes with limited resources. However, Rwanda’s healthcare system, bolstered by strong government commitment and partnerships with international organizations, is better equipped than most to respond to such a crisis. Access to personal protective equipment (PPE) doesn’t seem to be a limiting factor in this outbreak and is further supported by partners like the World Health Organization during this current outbreak.

Yet, despite these resources, healthcare workers remain at risk. This points to the fact that while access to PPE is essential, it is not the only solution. Comprehensive infection prevention and control (IPC) measures, proper training, surveillance and monitoring, and a culture of vigilance within healthcare settings are equally crucial to stopping the spread of the virus among those on the front lines.

Recommendations to Protect Healthcare Workers

Rwanda’s situation is neither unique nor a one-off. The threat posed by viral hemorrhagic fevers like Marburg can emerge anywhere. Any country, regardless of its healthcare infrastructure, can face such outbreaks. The risk of nosocomial transmission, the dangers to healthcare workers, and the broader community impact are universal concerns. The recommendations to strengthen healthcare worker protection in Rwanda extend beyond its borders; they are vital for any nation vulnerable to similar infectious disease threats, which in this globally connected community means all of us. The lessons from Rwanda’s experience provide a framework that can be adapted globally to better protect healthcare workers and communities in the face of future outbreaks.

Here are several recommendations to strengthen the protection of healthcare workers, which apply not only to Rwanda but to any country:

Expand Infection Prevention and Control Training

Continuous and widespread training on infection control is critical to ensuring healthcare workers everywhere are equipped to handle outbreaks of high consequence infectious diseases like MVD. Regular refresher courses, as well as simulations of outbreak scenarios, should be a priority to ensure that healthcare workers remain prepared.

Strengthen Surveillance and Early Detection Systems

Robust surveillance systems that allow for rapid identification, isolation, and treatment of cases can mitigate nosocomial transmission, a threat that any healthcare setting faces.

Invest in Healthcare Worker Safety Programs

Providing comprehensive support, including mental health services, hazard pay, and strong safety protocols—ensures that healthcare workers across the globe feel secure and protected. Furthermore, healthcare facilities must establish clear reporting structures for IPC breaches, allowing for immediate action to protect both healthcare workers and patients.

Foster Global Partnerships for Vaccine Research and Therapeutics

Rwanda is one of the first countries to begin administering vaccines for Marburg, with over 1,149 doses already distributed. However, global support is needed to expand vaccine research and ensure that healthcare workers, those most at risk, are prioritized in vaccination campaigns. Supporting vaccine and therapeutic research, while prioritizing healthcare workers for vaccination, is a global imperative that transcends national boundaries. Rwanda has set a commendable record in deployment of the chAD3 MARV vaccine as part of an open label Phase II trial during the current MVD outbreak, administering 1,609 doses as of October 28th.

A Global Responsibility

Despite the challenges posed by the Marburg outbreak, Rwanda’s response has been commendable. The government’s swift action, transparent communication, and coordinated efforts with international partners have likely prevented a far worse scenario. The relatively low CFR of 23%, compared to historical outbreaks where CFRs have reached as high as 90%, is a testament to the effectiveness of supportive care and early intervention. Rwanda’s healthcare system, known for its resilience, has once again demonstrated its capacity to respond to complex health emergencies.

However, the Marburg outbreak in Rwanda is a stark reminder that viral hemorrhagic fevers are not distant or isolated threats, they are recurring global health crises that require sustained attention and investment. The global health community must rally behind Rwanda, not only to control the current outbreak but to build a future where healthcare workers are fully protected from such dangers.

Healthcare workers are the backbone of any outbreak response, and their safety should be a top priority. The lessons learned from this outbreak in Rwanda should serve as a blueprint for future responses worldwide. Protecting those who protect us is not just a moral imperative, it is essential to ensuring that health systems can withstand the shocks of the next inevitable outbreak.

About the Co-Author

Nahid Bhadelia, MD, MALD, is founding Director at the Boston University Center on Emerging Infectious Diseases, and an associate professor in the Boston University Chobanian and Avedisian School of Medicine.

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Advocating a Better Future for Postdocs

Blavatnik Regional Awards Finalist Nicole Lake, PhD, is now a strong advocate for postdoctoral researchers. She offers advice on how postdocs should advocate for one another.

Published September 17, 2024

By Nicole Lake, PhD

As postdocs, we are not just passive participants in our journey. We are active shapers of our own experience. We must learn and apply a wide range of skills, from research and teaching to networking and time management.

Another crucial skill we need is self-advocacy – standing up for our needs. Whether negotiating for better resources, obtaining support to attend a conference, securing mentorship, or balancing work-life demands, self-advocacy is vital for our postdoctoral success and well-being. As we move through our postdoc, some of us will also find ourselves stepping into a new role: advocating for others. Whether it’s pushing for better representation, compensation, childcare support, or benefits, advocacy for postdocs by postdocs also plays a central role in shaping the postdoc experience.

During my postdoc, I navigated a journey that saw me grow from advocating for myself to advocating for my peers in the postdoc community. My experience taught me that advocacy goes beyond identifying needs; it also requires the confidence and understanding of how to ask for your needs to be met effectively. Whether advocating for yourself or pushing for change within a department or university, framing an ask around mutual benefits is often key. Before making a request, I consider the other person’s perspective: understanding their viewpoint, finding common ground, and showing how my request will benefit them can often lead to a solution.

Advocating for Fellow Postdocs

My role as a Yale Postdoctoral Association (YPA) Co-Chair had the most significant impact on my advocacy perspective as a postdoc. In this role, I was privileged to advocate for over 1,000 postdocs. The YPA has a proud history of advocating for positive change for the postdocs it serves, and one of the achievements I’m most proud of during my term was securing salary increases to reflect the value of postdocs and their living costs better. I took away two critical lessons from this experience:

1) the power of data-driven advocacy and
2) the importance that the allyship of faculty and staff plays in advocacy success.

In academia, we rely on data to support our hypotheses, and I’ve found this approach equally powerful for advocacy. To better understand, uncover, and address unmet needs in our community, we initiated a university-wide postdoc survey on topics including cost-of-living considerations, and available resources for postdocs, to obtain data, enable data-driven discussions with university leadership, and strengthen our case for change. This survey was a collaborative effort with the postdoctoral office, representing an example of allyship between postdocs and the university, working together to achieve a common goal: improving the postdoc experience.

It’s important to acknowledge that the success of our advocacy didn’t happen in isolation. Within the YPA it was built on the groundwork laid by previous leaders who, for example, established channels for regular dialogue with university leadership—these channels were critical for communicating our requests. Our time as a postdoc is limited, and we may not always see the outcomes of our efforts advocating for better representation, benefits, compensation, and beyond. However, it’s important to remember that our efforts are cumulative and often provide a foundation for future advocates to build upon, contributing to progress long after we’ve moved on.

A Skill Developed Over Time

Finally, I want to share that self-advocacy does not come naturally to me but rather is a skill I’ve had to develop over time. Advocating for others has always come more easily than advocating for myself. Like any other skill, self-advocacy is learned—it requires practice, patience, and persistence. However, it is a skill worth cultivating, given its impact on your career and well-being.

Overall, my journey has shown me the power of advocacy – not only for improving our circumstances but also for improving the experience of others. Whether you’re advocating for yourself or pushing for change to benefit others, advocacy has an essential place in the postdoctoral experience.

You can learn more about her and the Blavatnik Awards at Blavatnikawards.org

This piece published on the National Postdoctoral Association member blog as part of 2024 National Postdoc Appreciation Week. Current Academy Members can receive a 20% discount on a National Postdoctoral Association postdoc individual membership by emailing info@nyas.org and requesting the NPA membership discount code

About the Author

Nicole Lake is a 2024 Blavatnik Regional Awards Finalist in Life Sciences.

Self-Advocacy Played Important Role in My Journey

Blavatnik Regional Awards Laureate Raghavendra Pradyumna Pothukuchi, PhD, had to advocate for himself to find the right work-life balance. He offers advice so fellow postdocs can do the same.

Published September 17, 2024

By Raghavendra Pradyumna Pothukuchi, PhD

Raghavendra Pradyumna Pothukuchi, PhD, celebrates his wife’s birthday with their two children.

We all enjoy science and research, but it’s hard to deny that academic life is grueling. This is especially so as a postdoc, which is a great springboard for one’s career but also brings unique challenges.

Making the most of a postdoc inevitably requires significant effort. Couple this with personal needs, goals, and responsibilities, and you have a fragile contraption of sorts, ready to fall in many ways.

My choice of being a postdoc was born out of an abruptly terminated job search during the COVID-19 fallout. When I graduated from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 2020, my kids were 1 and 4, and my dear wife, a fellow PhD in computer science, would soon opt out of work due to long COVID.

My postdoc would be on brain-computer interfaces, and classical and quantum frameworks for cognitive models. It’s exciting — but very new and challenging. I had to balance my research with personal commitments including childcare, my wife’s health, providing long-distance support to my parents living in my home country of India, traveling to help my father while he was being treated for cancer, and, of course, managing my own well-being.

Finding Work-Life Balance

One way that has helped me in making the postdoc process work, is self-advocacy. You are (or can be) your best ally and advocate on issues that matter to you, whether they are about yourself or those that you care about. The definition of being a self-advocate means “identifying your needs and communicating them clearly to help others understand how they can support you”.

There are many valuable resources on self-advocacy, including those at the National Postdoctoral Association (NPA). I’d like to share what I learned from my experience. The first step to self-advocacy is to identify what you need, professionally and personally. These could be resources, compensation, special needs, processes, projects you should be on, or even assistance from people, like teammates and mentors. This step is not easy—it requires time and thought.

One could start with high-level tangible goals such as, readiness for academic job searches within two years, allocating hours for childcare, improving wellbeing in a community you care about, etc.; then move to identify the specific needs to accomplish them. It’s helpful to identify and talk to various stakeholders, such as family and mentors, with whom your plans intersect. On the professional side, a good starting point is the postdoc mentoring plan, which makes career goals and means explicit.

Advocating for Yourself

In my case, I needed a mentor who understood my situation, a system with flexible schedules, reasonable compensation and benefits to support my family, and the leeway to explore new fields. These needs weren’t exhaustive or static, since life changes. However, to the extent possible, it pays to be foresighted so that you don’t appear capricious or importunate, and importantly, that you ask for what actually helps you.

The next step is to identify the people that you would communicate your needs with. This is critical. They should be able to provide what you need and be willing to help. In several cases, this could be your mentor, but it doesn’t have to be. For example, while my mentor was the right person to talk to about compensation and work schedules, it wasn’t so for childcare or other benefits that are set by my university.

Sometimes when asking for policy-level changes, it helps to find others who share your cause. This could be your local postdoctoral association, or the NPA. When I was a grad student, I was concerned about the wellbeing of students in my academic community (computer architecture). At a conference, I met with a fellow student who shared the same cause, and our joint effort led to the creation of a new student association with this mission, CASA. This wouldn’t have been possible if I hadn’t met my co-founder.

The last step is to articulate your needs. This means clearly and politely stating your needs, participating in good faith, and being open. If needed, convey the value you bring to the group.

Raghavendra Pradyumna Pothukuchi, PhD, (second from left) with his lab members.

Identify Your Non-Negotiables

It’s useful to identify which of your needs are non-negotiable. However, it’s also possible that some needs can’t be met, at least not fully or immediately. Be open to alternatives. In my case, my starting postdoc salary was good but not great for my family needs. I brought this up with my mentor, who understood my situation and recommended that we apply for a fellowship, the NSF and CRA computing innovation fellowship, which I received. This took time, but it helped immensely, even beyond the finances.

I hope my experience inspires you to self-advocate. My postdoc journey didn’t happen without making hard choices or giving up things I loved. But I’m glad about my progress—personal and professional (the Blavatnik Regional Award for Young Scientists being one!), and the things I was able to hold on to, and pickup. Self-advocacy played an important role in my journey.

Looking forward, I will continue to practice it as I transition to a tenure-track faculty position at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.

You can learn more about him and the Blavatnik Awards at Blavatnikawards.org

This piece published on the National Postdoctoral Association member blog is part of 2024 National Postdoc Appreciation Week. Current Academy Members can receive a 20% discount on a National Postdoctoral Association postdoc individual membership by emailing info@nyas.org and requesting the NPA membership discount code

About the Author

Raghavendra Pradyumna Pothukuchi, is a 2024 Blavatnik Regional Awards Laureate in Physical Sciences & Engineering

A New Approach to Postdoc Work-Life Balance

A woman poses with her significant others, a river and sunset in the background.

Blavatnik Regional Awards Finalist Amy R. Strom, PhD, offers advice on the subtle differences postdocs must consider when finding work-life balance.

Published September 17, 2024

By Amy R. Strom, PhD

Is work-life balance truly harder for postdocs than other professions? The short answer is yes, and there’s a reason you’ll find so many “How I Found Balance” articles written by academics. These narratives often focus on the number of hours spent at work versus at home, which is, of course, an essential aspect of balance. However, this narrow focus misses a crucial component: the role of the employer in shaping the work environment.

Achieving balance in the face of obstacles is not just about personal discipline; it often hinges on the resources and support provided by the institution. We should be building structures that empower individuals to create a balanced life.

My own journey in science has required a long-distance relationship during my postdoc, between New Jersey and California. I have had to carefully organize my project timelines and fund cross-country flights in order to spend time with my partner, but even with these personal sacrifices I quickly ran out of leave.

An Individualized Approach

Then I advocated for myself to my mentor and the University to be able to work remotely from out of state without the time away from campus being counted as vacation. As an experimentalist, remote work can be complicated to coordinate, so I am grateful to my partner, to my mentor and to the administrators in my department for their support in identifying a solution that works for my personal situation.

Perhaps establishing this solution and sharing the story will aid postdocs in similar situations in the future (long-distance relationships among academics are not rare), but more practically, it is important for each individual to get the support they need to enact their own personal solutions. I credit my own navigation of my challenges not in small part to coalescing with a group of fellow women grad students and postdocs who face different but equally complex challenges. Together we discuss the difficulties we face and help each other brainstorm potential solutions. Women in Science groups and other shared identity groups provide not only a sense of belonging but also a platform for advocacy.

Postdocs are not a monophyletic clade. We are women, men, nonbinary, single, partnered, married; we are sexually, racially, and culturally diverse. Such diversity means that a one-size-fits-all approach to work-life balance is ineffective at best and harmful at worst. This is where mutual and intersectional advocacy becomes crucial. By recognizing our shared challenges and working together, we can push for changes that benefit us all.

*Amy with a close group of women scientists. From left: Amy Strom, Claire Weaver, Jessica Zhao, Lindsay Becker, Anita Donlic, Yoonji Kim, Sofia Quinodoz, and Hailey Tanner*

Postdocs and Unionization

In the summer of 2024, postdocs at my home institution, Princeton University, voted to become part of the United Auto Workers (UAW) union, an American union that has grown to represent more than just the auto industry. This victory required immense effort from many current postdocs, demonstrating the power of collective action.

Unionization will allow us to gather centralized information about our needs and bargain more effectively with the University for policy changes that will benefit us as a group and as individuals. Now just a few weeks later, a survey is collecting data on the most pressing issues we face, from pay equity to green card applications to family leave policies. I enthusiastically look forward to the additional support and benefits that Princeton will enact based on these data.

So, this National Postdoc Appreciation Week, let’s truly appreciate postdocs. Let’s listen to their unique stories, empathize with their individual challenges, and then make real, tangible, institutional changes to support them. Acknowledging the diversity of experiences among postdocs is the first step towards creating a more equitable academic environment where each individual can achieve their own balance.

You can learn more about her and the Blavatnik Awards at Blavatnikawards.org

About the Author

Amy R. Strom is a 2024 Blavatnik Regional Awards Finalist in Life Sciences

Our Iceland Adventure Turned into a Climate Crisis Wake-Up Call

The Jökulsárlón glacier lagoon provides not only aesthetic beauty but it’s a case study in the detrimental effects of climate change and the need to take mitigative action now.

Published September 11, 2024

By Syra Madad, D.H.Sc., M.Sc., MCP, CHEP

On a recent trip to Iceland with my children, we visited the Jökulsárlón glacier lagoon, a place known for its serene beauty, where fractured icebergs from the Breiðamerkurjökull glacier drift across the water. Their ethereal shades of blue and black felt timeless, but in reality, they represent the fragility of an ecosystem being reshaped by climate change.

While sailing through the lagoon, we witnessed massive icebergs drifting across the water, their glistening surfaces reflecting the light in stunning shades of blue. During the excursion, we watched as one of the staff members aboard the boat scooped up a piece of ice from the lagoon—once part of a melted glacier—and took a bite.

For most of the group, this was a fun and quirky highlight of the trip. But as an infectious disease epidemiologist, my thoughts immediately turned to the potential microbes preserved in that ancient ice—microbes that could have been dormant for millennia. Research shows that as glaciers and permafrost thaw due to climate change, long-dormant microorganisms, including potential pathogens, can be released.

Glacial ice can harbor viable infectious pathogens, as evidenced by a recent study which found that over 50% of bacterial cells on glacier surfaces are capable of resuming activity within 24 hours after thawing, highlighting their ability to remain dormant and potentially pathogenic in frozen environments, only to become active under the right conditions.

Public Health and Melting Ice Caps

This experience left me thinking not just about climate change in the abstract, but also about the potential public health consequences of melting ice caps. The possibility of ancient microbes resurfacing is a stark reminder that climate change affects more than just the physical environment—it also has implications for causing future outbreaks.

Jökulsárlón, which didn’t exist before the 20th century, is a direct result of rising global temperatures. This glacial lagoon only began to form around 1935, driven by the rapid retreat of the Breiðamerkurjökull glacier, a process that has accelerated with every passing decade. The lagoon’s surface area has doubled since the 1970s, and it now stands as Iceland’s deepest lake, growing as the ice that once shielded this region melts into history.

The expansion of Jökulsárlón is a living testament to the impact of a warming planet, visible and visceral. This lagoon’s growth is not a triumph of nature’s beauty but a stark reminder of the irreversible transformations happening in our environment.

Every meter of receding glacier signifies the loss of critical ice reserves that have sustained ecosystems for centuries. Iceland’s glaciers are losing significant ice mass each year. For example, a study on Iceland’s glaciers revealed a loss of approximately 9.6 gigatons of ice annually as observed from 1995 to 2019, with half of the total mass loss occurring during this period, reflecting an accelerated rate due to climate change.

The Urgency of Action

As I stood at the lagoon’s edge with my children, I couldn’t help but wonder what kind of world they will inherit. Will these glaciers become distant memories? As a mother, the climate crisis is deeply personal. The wildfires, floods, and extreme heat waves we see across the world are not exceptions but increasingly the new normal, driven by a warming planet.

In Jökulsárlón, the visible melting glaciers underline the urgency of action. Climate change is no longer an abstract concept; it is unfolding right before our eyes. As we approach Climate Week NYC, it is a reminder that the time for action is now. The retreating glaciers of Iceland tell us a story of loss, but they also challenge us to decide what kind of future we will create for the generations to come.

Will we act, or let this pivotal moment pass, forever changing the world our children will inherit?

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Have We Passed the Turing Test, and Should We Really be Trying?

The 70th anniversary of Turing’s death invites us to ponder: can we imagine AI models that will do well on the Turing test?

Published August 22, 2024

By Nitin Verma, PhD

Alan Turing (1912-1954) in 1936 at Princeton University.
Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.

Alan Turing is perhaps best remembered by many as the cryptography genius who led the British effort to break the German Enigma codes during WWII. His efforts provided crucial information about German troop movements and helped bring the war to an end.

2024 has been a noteworthy year in the story of Turing’s life as June 7th marked 70 years since his tragic death in 1954. But four years before that—in 1950—he kickstarted a revolution in digital computing by posing the question “can machines think?” and proposing an “imitation game” to answer it.

While this quest has been the holy grail for theoretical computer scientists since the publication of Turing’s 1950 paper, the public launch of ChatGPT in November 2022 has brought the question to the center stage of global conversation.

In his landmark 1950 paper, Turing predicted that: “[by about the year 2000] it will be possible to programme computers… [that] play the imitation game so well that an average interrogator will not have more than 70 per cent. chance of making the right identification after five minutes of questioning.” (p. 442). By “right identification”, Turing meant accurately distinguishing between human-generated and computer-generated text responses.

This “imitation game” eventually came to be known as the Turing test of machine intelligence. It is designed to determine whether a computer can successfully imitate a human to the point that a human interacting with it would be unable to tell the difference.

We’re much past the year 2000: Are we there yet?

In 2022, Google let go of Blake Lemoine, a software engineer who had publicly claimed that the company’s LaMDA (Language Model for Dialogue Applications) program had attained sentience. Since then, the closest we’ve come to seeing Turing’s prediction come true is, perhaps, GPT-4, deepfakes, and OpenAI’s “Sora” text-to-video model that can churn out highly realistic video clips from mere text prompts.

Some researchers argue that LLMs (Large Language Models) such as GPT-4 do not yet pass the Turing test. Yet some others have flipped the script and argued that LLMs offer a way to assess human intelligence by positing a reverse Turing Test—i.e., what do our conversational interactions with LLMs reveal about our own intelligence?

Turing himself made a noteworthy remark about the imitation game in the same 1950 paper: “… we are not asking whether all digital computers would do well in the game nor whether the computers at present available would do well, but whether there are imaginable computers which would do well.” (Emphasis mine; p. 436).

Would Turing have imagined the current crop of generative AI models such as GPT-4 as ‘machines’ capable of “doing well” on the Turing test? I believe so, but we’re not quite there, yet. As an information scientist, I believe that in 2024 AI has come closer than ever to passing the Turing test.

If we’re not there yet, then should we strive to get there?

As with any other technology ever invented, as much as Turing may have only been thinking of the public good, there is always the potential for unforeseen consequences.

Technologies such as deepfake apps and conversational agents such as ChatGPT still need human creativity to be useful and usable. But still, the advanced AI that powers these technologies carries the potential of passing the Turing test. That potential portends a range of consequences for society that deserve our serious attention.

Leading scholars have already warned about the consequences of the ability of “fake” information to fuel distrust in public institutions including the judicial system and national security. The upheaval in the public imagination caused by ChatGPT even prompted US President Biden to issue an Executive Order on the Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of AI in the fall of 2023.

We’ll never know what Turing would have made of the spurt of AI advances in light of his own foundational work in theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence. His untimely death at the young age of 41 deprived the world of one of the greatest minds of the 20^th century and the still more extraordinary achievements he could have made.

But it’s clear that the advances and use of AI technology have brought society to a turning point that he anticipated in his seminal works.

It remains difficult to say when—or whether—machines will truly surpass human-level intelligence. But more than 70 years after Turing’s death we are at a point where we can imagine AI agents that will do well on the Turing test. And if we can imagine it, we can someday build it too.

Passing a challenging test can be seen as a marker of progress. But would we truly rejoice in having our AI pass the Turing test, or some other benchmark of human–machine indistinguishability?

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